Across the world, many people suffer health harms from drugs. In 2021, among people aged 15 to 64 worldwide, an estimated approximately 300 million people used drugs, meaning roughly 1 in 17 people used drugs. There are also reports that in 2021 alone, about 600,000 people died with drugs as a direct or indirect cause.

Moreover, the number of people who use drugs has been increasing year by year; over the past decade, it is said to have risen by 23%. In addition, some drugs are newly spreading. For example, a drug called captagon, distributed mainly in the Middle East and North Africa, saw the amount seized roughly double—by about 2 times—in the single year from 2020 to 2021. Given this situation, drug problems are likely to continue expanding.

So, how much and in what ways is this issue being reported in Japan? In this article, after presenting information about drugs worldwide, we look at how major Japanese newspapers report on drug and narcotics issues.

Opioids (Photo: Find Rehab Centers / Flickr [CC BY 2.0 DEED] )

Four major types of drugs

Drugs are defined as “any chemical substance that affects the functioning of living organisms or the organisms that infect them (such as bacteria, fungi, viruses).” Thus, drugs can sometimes improve physical or mental ailments. However, depending on the type and amount used, they can harm rather than help. Here, we focus on drugs that have the potential to adversely affect health.

First, drugs can be divided into two categories by their effects: uppers and downers. “Uppers” refers to drugs that increase energy, concentration, and alertness. Cocaine and stimulants fall into this category. “Downers” depress the central nervous system and promote relaxation. Cannabis and opioids are representative downers. In this article we primarily discuss four drugs: the uppers cocaine and stimulants, and the downers cannabis and opioids (※1).

Cocaine is a drug derived from coca leaves. It is usually a white powder that is snorted or dissolved in water and injected. Shortly after using cocaine, users feel euphoria, but then withdrawal symptoms appear and cocaine can harm both mind and body. Withdrawal symptoms specifically include body aches, nausea, fatigue, anxiety, hallucinations, and delusions. This can lead to a vicious cycle in which cocaine is taken again to escape the withdrawal. Overdosing can cause abnormally high blood pressure and increased heart rate, which may lead to arrhythmia, cardiac arrest, and even death in some cases.

Stimulants refers to amphetamine, methamphetamine, and their salts, which stimulate the nervous system (※2). These are manufactured from chemical substances. Stimulants are generally taken by swallowing tablets, or by dissolving powders and injecting them. There is also a small crystalline form called “ice,” which is smoked or crushed into powder and snorted. Since the 1930s, amphetamines have been used as medications to treat sleep disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but over time illicit production, use, and abuse became a problem. Their effects are similar to cocaine, but the feeling of well-being lasts longer, which is a characteristic. Withdrawal symptoms occur after use, and overdoses can cause stroke or heart attack and may be fatal in some cases.

Syringe used for drug consumption (Photo: Chris F / pexels)

Cannabis, also called marijuana, consists of dried plants such as Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica. It is consumed by smoking it directly or using devices called pipes or bongs (※3). Immediately after use, people feel euphoria and relaxation. While there are no known deaths attributable solely to cannabis use, it can have long-term adverse effects such as lung damage, hallucinations, and mental disorders. In particular, when adolescents use cannabis, brain development can be impaired.

Opioids are made from substances extracted from the opium poppy and exist in forms ranging from tablets to powders. Tablets are taken orally, while powders are injected or snorted. Specific examples include opium, morphine, and heroin. Some opioids are prescribed as medications, while others are considered completely illegal. Opioids induce relaxation and euphoria, but dependence on these effects can lead to overdose. Overdosing on opioids can cause respiratory depression, depriving the brain of oxygen and leading to brain damage or death.

Notably, there are reports suggesting that alcohol and tobacco—legal in most countries—are more harmful than drugs like those discussed here.

Production and distribution of drugs

Where are these drugs produced and manufactured? According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), in 2021 the top countries by cultivation area for coca leaves, the raw material for cocaine, were Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia—in other words, mainly South America.

By contrast, stimulants (※4) are illicitly manufactured in factories, so exact production volumes are unknown. However, the most amphetamine production is believed to be in Europe, while the most methamphetamine production is thought to be in Asia.

Cannabis is easy to cultivate by nature and is produced in almost every country. Between 2010 and 2018, cannabis production was reported in 151 countries. While production was once particularly active in North America and Europe, it has increased in regions such as Asia and North Africa as well.

For opioids, the top countries by cultivation area for the raw material poppy are Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Laos, centering on Asia. Afghanistan in particular has been reported to account for 80% of the world’s opioid production, reports say, though production has been decreasing under Taliban policy as of 2023.

Poppies cultivated in Afghanistan (Photo: United Nations Photo / Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 DEED])

Next, by region, which drugs are distributed where? Cocaine is mainly distributed in North America and Europe. It is exported along routes from northern South America via Mexico and the Caribbean to the United States, and via regions such as West Africa to Europe. Stimulants are a major drug mainly in East Asia. However, in terms of prevalence of use, North America and Oceania are higher than Asia. Captagon, mentioned in the introduction and a type of stimulant, has begun to spread concentratedly in the Middle East and North Africa, heightening a region-wide addiction crisis.

Cannabis is the most widely distributed drug globally; in 72 of 107 countries with available statistics, it is the most prevalent drug. Accordingly, it is distributed across wide regions including North America, Latin America, Europe, and Africa. This can be attributed to the fact that use of cannabis is legalized in some countries and that cannabis is considered less harmful than other drugs. Opioids are widely distributed in the Middle East and South and Central Asia. In North America and Europe, however, the per-capita amount of opioids available is higher than in other regions, and harms from overdoses are a major issue. This is known as the opioid crisis.

Harms from drugs and countermeasures

While some drugs are used for medical purposes, they cause health harms worldwide. Many people suffer damage to physical and mental health and develop drug dependence, and there are many cases of death due to drug use. In 2019, deaths directly attributable to drugs numbered 128,083, and those indirectly attributable were 494,492, according to records. As of 2019, people reporting drug misuse or dependence accounted for 0.7% of the world’s population—7 in every 1,000 people, which is not small.

Which drugs cause the most harm? In 2021, opioids are reported to be the drugs associated with the most overdose deaths and the most people in need of treatment. In fact, in 2019, deaths directly attributable to each drug were 88,353 for opioids, 12,779 for cocaine, and 8,964 for amphetamines (※5).

Next, by region, mortality rates: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the highest mortality rate from drugs is in North America, with 13.8 deaths per 100,000 people. The next highest is Oceania at 4.4, followed by Europe at 3.0.

Given these harms, what countermeasures are being implemented worldwide? Measures range from what can be done at the household level to government interventions. In the home, instead of merely watching someone with addiction, engaging in their recovery can help them start treatment quickly and provide emotional support that aids recovery. At the community level, people can receive specialized treatment for drug dependence at treatment centers and hospitals. In addition to professional institutions, people can join self-help groups where those with addiction support each other in overcoming it. As a preventive measure, educational institutions conduct education to help young people understand drugs correctly and avoid misuse.

A self-help group working to overcome drug addiction (Photo: rebcenter-moscow / Wikimedia Commons [CC-BY-SA-4.0])

At the national level, governments have imposed regulations through laws that restrict the use, possession, and sale of specific drugs. Governments police drug use and sales, and in some cases deploy the military to respond with force against organizations that manufacture and smuggle drugs.

Analysis of drug-related reporting: by region

We have outlined basic information about drugs. To what extent do Japanese media capture the global reality of drug issues? Here, we analyze international reporting on drugs in three major newspapers—Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, and Yomiuri Shimbun—from 2015 to 2022 (※6) from various perspectives.

In GNV’s database summarizing international reporting by the three major newspapers, a search for 2015–2022 articles with “薬物” (drugs) or “麻薬” (narcotics) in the headline yielded 222 items.

From these articles, we first analyzed reporting volume by region (※7). Of the 222 articles analyzed, 36% concerned Asia, 26% Europe, 12% North America, 11% Latin America, and 1% each Africa and Oceania. Asia had the most coverage, largely because a hardline policy against drug use and sales began in the Philippines in 2016, generating extensive reporting. In fact, of the 81.8 Asia-related articles, 43.5—more than half—concerned the Philippines. The crackdown under this policy, termed a “war on drugs,” drew attention because more than 12,000 people were executed extrajudicially and police violence became a major concern.

However, there were few articles on countries that produce opioids, such as Afghanistan, Laos, and Myanmar—only three articles involved Afghanistan. Of those, one mentioned poppy cultivation in Afghanistan; the other two concerned trends in the Afghan police and international relations.

Inside a laboratory at UNODC (Photo: United Nation Office on Drugs and crime / Flickr [CC BY 2.0 DEED])

Coverage of Europe was also relatively high at 26%, largely due to extensive reporting on the Russian doping scandal in sports that came to light around 2016. Of 58 Europe-related articles, 50—about 90%—concerned Russian doping. As noted earlier, Europe has a relatively high mortality rate from drugs. Yet there were zero reports on such harms; apart from doping, most coverage focused on drug use by powerful figures in states, narcotics smuggling cases, and criminal incidents involving drugs.

Next, North America accounted for about 10% of the total. Reporting covered a wide range: narcotics smuggling cases, drug crimes, policies, doping, and more. Health issues were relatively prominent: 5 of 27 North America articles (about 20%) addressed health, a higher proportion than in other regions.

Latin America also made up about 10% of coverage, similar to North America. Many reports focused on government crackdowns on narcotics and on drug organizations. This reflects reality: military action against drug cartels and conflicts between cartels occur in South America. Even so, Mexico (※8) accounted for 15 of the 25 Latin America-related articles. As Mexico is a key transit point for drug smuggling, Mexican smuggling cases and cartels often become topics in the U.S. Because the U.S. is heavily covered in Japan, such U.S.-related stories lead to increased reporting on Mexico as well.

Africa and Oceania each had only about 1% of total coverage. Oceania likely receives less coverage partly due to its smaller population. In contrast, Africa serves as a transit hub for drug trafficking, and drug production is increasing, yet coverage remains low. The scarcity of reporting on Africa applies to international news overall.

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Thus, articles on specific events account for a large share of all coverage. An analysis by year underscores this: reporting surged in 2016, the year the Russian doping scandal emerged and the Philippines launched a hardline policy. Reporting then gradually declined from 2016 to 2021, before rising again in 2022. The 2022 increase followed the Beijing Olympics, where a high-profile Russian medal contender faced doping suspicions that drew attention.

Analysis of drug-related reporting: by content

Having examined coverage by region, what subjects are featured within drug reporting? We next analyzed articles by content category (※9). The most common were sports-related, accounting for 35% of all articles—i.e., pieces about athletes and doping. As noted, about 60% of these sports articles (50 items) concerned the Russian doping scandal.

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Next most frequent were politics/policy articles at 23%, many of which involved policies and crackdowns on narcotics in the Philippines and Mexico. Others focused on government responses to smuggling and cooperation among countries on drug issues. Articles categorized as incidents/crime were about 20%, covering a wide range including smuggling cases and drug use by powerful figures in various states.

Are health harms and treatment addressed? Only 9 articles (※10) framed drugs as a health issue—just 0.5% of all drug-related articles. Examples include the U.S. decline in life expectancy partly due to overdoses, opioid dependence, and drug contamination issues in Bhutan. More than half (5) of the health-related articles were about the United States, indicating a regional skew.

In short, when categorizing Japan’s international reporting on drugs, the focus tends toward “newsworthy” angles—sports, policy, and incidents—rather than health harms and treatment.

Analysis of drug-related reporting: by drug type

Here we examine reporting volume by the four drug types highlighted in this article. We surveyed (※11) articles on the international pages of the three newspapers that mentioned each drug. Of 210 such articles, those mentioning cannabis were most numerous, accounting for 42%. This is likely due to reporting on movements to legalize cannabis use in several countries, with extensive coverage of legalization in Canada.

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Articles mentioning stimulants accounted for 21%. Stimulants are the most widely distributed drug in Japan and often appear in smuggling cases, which likely contributes to the volume of coverage. The next most common was cocaine at 20%, with many stories on Latin American cartels, celebrities’ alleged cocaine use, and smuggling suspicions.

Mentions of opioids comprised about 15% of the total, often addressing U.S. opioid dependence, poppy production in Afghanistan, and narcotics smuggling.

What about captagon, which is increasingly distributed in the Middle East and North Africa? A search (※12) of the three newspapers’ databases found two articles in Mainichi Shimbun that discussed captagon in connection with the Middle East and North Africa, but none in Asahi Shimbun or Yomiuri Shimbun.

Conclusion

Drug issues have multiple facets: health, politics/policy, crime, and broader social problems. A key point is that many people suffer from addiction. Can simply banning drugs help those struggling with dependence and solve drug problems? Treating addiction and addressing root causes that lead to drug misuse are considered more effective.

What aspects have the international reports we analyzed emphasized? Japan’s international coverage is dominated by “newsworthy” items like doping, smuggling and other incidents, hardline drug policies, and allegations against powerful figures, while there is relatively little on health harms, treatment, and social issues. This suggests the health dimension is being downplayed. In fact, beyond media coverage, health harms from more damaging substances like alcohol and tobacco are also arguably underemphasized.

Media reporting also heavily emphasizes the criminal/illicit dimension of drugs. While that reflects the legal reality for many substances, if criminal approaches dominate coverage while medical and social approaches are sidelined, the importance of the latter may go unrecognized by society. How can we truly move toward solutions? We should continue to watch the media and global developments.

A man beginning addiction treatment being embraced by the Pope (Photo: Agência Brasil / Wikimedia Commons [CC-BY-3.0-BR])

※1 In addition to the four types discussed here, other drugs exist—for example, LSD as a representative of hallucinogens and psychoactive substances. Note that MDMA is sometimes classified as a stimulant.

※2 Amphetamine is a drug that can be prescribed by physicians; using it for purposes other than medical treatment is the problem. Methamphetamine is never prescribed and is completely illegal. Methamphetamine is considered to have stronger effects than amphetamine.

※3 A bong is a pipe shaped like a test tube used to smoke cannabis.

※4 In this article we examined production of amphetamine and methamphetamine among stimulants.

※5 Deaths due to methamphetamine are not included.

※6 The survey targeted articles categorized as international reporting in the GNV database that had “薬物” (drugs) or “麻薬” (narcotics) in the headline. For the definition of international reporting, see “GNV Data Analysis Method [PDF].” The period is January 1, 2015 to December 31, 2022. In GNV, the targets analyzed are the Tokyo morning editions of Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, and Yomiuri Shimbun. Note that because we analyzed only items with these two words in the headline, some drug-related articles may not have been captured.

※7 The survey targeted articles categorized as international reporting in the GNV database that had “薬物” (drugs) or “麻薬” (narcotics) in the headline. For the definition of international reporting, see “GNV Data Analysis Method [PDF].” The period is January 1, 2015 to December 31, 2022. In GNV, the targets analyzed are the Tokyo morning editions of Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, and Yomiuri Shimbun. Regional classifications follow the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD): Asia, Africa, Oceania, Europe, North America, and Latin America—the 6 regions.

※8 Mexico is classified under Latin America in accordance with UNSD.

※9 The survey targeted articles categorized as international reporting in the GNV database that had “薬物” (drugs) or “麻薬” (narcotics) in the headline. For the definition of international reporting, see “GNV Data Analysis Method [PDF].” The period is January 1, 2015 to December 31, 2022. In GNV, the targets analyzed are the Tokyo morning editions of Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, and Yomiuri Shimbun. Based on headlines, we classified content into 16 categories (politics, economy, military, war/conflict, demonstrations/riots, terrorism, incidents, accidents, environment/pollution, weather/disasters, health/medical, society/life, science/technology, arts/culture, sports, education). Where categories overlapped, we reviewed article content and reclassified accordingly.

※10 As in ※9, we categorized the articles and then selected those whose categories were “Health/Medical” or “Society/Welfare,” reviewing content to determine whether they addressed health issues.

※11 We used the databases of the three newspapers: “Asahi Shimbun Cross Search” (Asahi Shimbun), “Maisaku” (Mainichi Shimbun), and “Yomidas Rekishikan” (Yomiuri Shimbun). For the search method, we selected the Tokyo head office’s main paper and the Tokyo local section, and targeted the morning and evening editions. For Asahi Shimbun, we limited targets to “Asahi Shimbun” (excluding Asahi Shimbun Digital, AERA, Weekly Asahi). The period is January 1, 2015 to December 31, 2022. The section name is the international section; search targets were headlines and body text. For amphetamine-type, we searched “覚醒剤OR覚せい剤ORアンフェタミンORメタンフェタミンORMDMA”. For cannabis: “大麻ORマリファナORマリフアナ”. For cocaine: “コカイン”. For opioids: “オピオイドORヘロインORモルヒネ”.

※12 In the three newspapers’ databases, we searched “カプタゴンORフェネチリン”. Period: January 1, 2015 to October 11, 2023 (extended through 2023 because captagon began to be reported globally starting in 2023). For the search method, we selected the Tokyo head office’s main paper and the Tokyo local section, and targeted the morning and evening editions. For Asahi Shimbun, we limited targets to Asahi Shimbun. The section name is the international section; search targets were headlines and body text.

Writer: Ayaka Takeuchi

Graphics: Ayaka Takeuchi

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