On 2024/3/24, a presidential election was held in Senegal. The result was that the opposition camp’s candidate, Diomaye Faye, won, bringing the first change of president in about 12 years. However, this transition of power was anything but smooth, and the situation in Senegal fluctuated greatly over the election. The causes included the postponement of the vote by former President Macky Sall and the arrest of leading opposition figures. In West Africa’s unstable political landscape, Senegal has long been regarded as relatively stable in its democracy. Yet this presidential election put that democracy at risk. Although the transfer of power ultimately took place without incident, why did Senegal end up in turmoil? This article explores Senegal’s political trajectory to date, the latest presidential election, and the state of Senegalese democracy.

Ousmane Sonko’s campaign poster (Photo: Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung / Flickr [CC BY-SA 2.0 DEED])

History of Senegal

Senegal is a West African country on the Atlantic coast. It borders Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau, and its territory encircles The Gambia. In the area that is now Senegal, various political formations such as numerous kingdoms had emerged by the 15th century. In particular, during the era of the Tekrur Kingdom, which flourished around the 8~9th centuries in the region of present-day Senegal, Islam spread through trade with North Africa’s Berbers. Even today, about 95% of the population is Muslim.

From around the so-called Age of Discovery in the 15th century onward, what is now Senegal and its surroundings came to be valued by European and American powers as the geographical gateway to West Africa. From the 17th century, they began full-fledged expansion into the region and built fortified outposts. In the Atlantic triangular trade (Note 1), which supplied enslaved people from West Africa to the Americas, Gorée Island off today’s capital, Dakar, became a key hub. After a period under Dutch traders, the island came under the control of France, which was based in present-day Saint-Louis in northern Senegal, and at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 it was designated a French colony. After banning the slave trade in 1848, France pushed its colonial policies by promoting the cultivation of cash crops such as peanuts in what is now Senegal, and building railways to transport them. The Berlin Conference of 1885 divided the African continent and created French West Africa (present-day Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Benin). The governor’s office of French West Africa was established in Saint-Louis.

At the same time, under France’s Third Republic, the four communes of Dakar, Saint-Louis, Gorée, and Rufisque were granted self-government, and their inhabitants were granted French citizenship—preferential policies. In 1915, Blaise Diagne from Gorée became the first Black member of the French National Assembly and advocated racial equality. However, this relationship was ultimately used to recruit soldiers for the French army. As a result, Senegalese were mobilized as French soldiers in many wars, including the two World Wars.

Building on Gorée Island where enslaved people were confined (Photo: Ryan Kendrick Smith / Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 DEED])

Senegal after independence

In 1959, what is now Senegal merged with French Sudan (present-day Mali) to form the Mali Federation, and on 1960/4/4 (Senegal Independence Day), based on an agreement signed between the federation and France, it gained independence from France on 6/20 of the same year. Then, on 8/20 of the same year, it withdrew from the Mali Federation and the Republic of Senegal formally declared its independence. However, in practice it did not achieve complete independence from France, as numerous agreements on military/defense, economic, and cultural matters were concluded, leaving significant French influence after independence. Specifically, France maintained military bases in Senegal; diplomacy prioritized relations with former French colonies; the CFA franc—its rate pegged to the franc (now the euro)—was used; and French was adopted as the official language in education and language policy.

After independence, Senegal managed to maintain a relatively stable and democratic state within often-unstable West Africa. There has been no coup d’état, and despite issues that have been pointed out, changes of government have continued through elections. Political freedoms and press freedom are also relatively high. Accordingly, Senegal has long been considered a model of democracy in West Africa.

While there was stability at the central-government level, some regions were unstable—most notably the southern region of Casamance, considered Senegal’s most fertile land. Because Casamance and the north, including the capital Dakar, are separated by The Gambia, many in Casamance feel the region has been neglected and isolated by the Senegalese government. There are also differences in ethnic and religious composition compared to other parts of Senegal. In 1982, an armed group was formed and the situation escalated into conflict. Pro-independence forces in Casamance have repeatedly clashed with the Senegalese government. The independence movement has continued for 30 years, and stabilizing Casamance is said to be one key to strengthening democracy there.

Four presidents and presidential elections

The first president of independent Senegal was Léopold Sédar Senghor of the Socialist Party of Senegal (PSS). Senghor promoted the modernization of agriculture and pursued pro-French policies. He made his presence felt in the Francophone world, calling for the creation of a community of French-speaking countries. At independence, Senegal had the post of prime minister, which shared executive authority. However, Mamadou Dia, who became prime minister after independence, attempted an unsuccessful coup and was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Senghor resigned before the end of his term at the end of 1980. Abdou Diouf, who had served as prime minister under Senghor since 1970, became the new president. Like Senghor, President Diouf maintained friendly relations with France and served as secretary-general of the Francophone community.

Challenging President Diouf was Abdoulaye Wade, the leading opposition figure since independence. In the 1988 presidential election, Diouf won, but Wade’s Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS) alleged electoral fraud, and there was turmoil including demonstrations in Dakar. The Diouf government declared a state of emergency in Dakar and arrested Wade. Presidential elections were again held in 1993 and 2000, and to ensure fair elections amid unrest, observers were dispatched from international and regional organizations. Diouf was re-elected in 1993, but in the 2000 election he was defeated, and Wade finally won the presidency.

President Wade diversified Senegal’s external relations. Beyond traditionally close ties with France, he sought closer relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. During the 2003 Iraq War, unlike France, which opposed the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, President Wade effectively supported the United States—clearly reflecting his diplomatic stance. He also concluded agreements with countries such as China and the United Arab Emirates, pursuing broad-based diplomacy.

Abdoulaye Wade (Photo: Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung / Flickr [CC BY-SA 2.0 DEED])

Wade was re-elected in 2007 and entered his second term, but faced issues of corruption and term limits. The term-limit problem arose when he ran in 2012 for what would be a third term, despite the constitution limiting presidents to 2 terms. The constitution setting the two-term limit was adopted in 2001, after Wade took office. President Wade argued that because this constitutional restriction did not exist when he first took office, his first term should not count, allowing him to run for what would effectively be a third term. His claim met strong backlash and escalated into mass protests. Wade was ultimately defeated by Macky Sall, who had previously served as his prime minister, and power changed hands. Wade quickly conceded, containing post-election unrest.

President Sall’s administration

Defeating Wade, President Sall sought economic growth through large-scale infrastructure projects and the development of natural resources. Airports, railways, and industrial zones were built, gas and oil projects were developed, and GDP grew. Foreign investment surged over roughly a decade. However, some questioned how much of this benefited ordinary citizens.　

Sall also raised Senegal’s international profile. He chaired the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) from 2015 to 2016 and the African Union (AU) from 2022 to 2023. ECOWAS intervened in turmoil over The Gambia’s presidential election in 2016–2017, and Senegalese troops were deployed to The Gambia. In that election, President Yahya Jammeh, who headed a military regime, initially conceded defeat but then refused to step down and deployed troops in the capital, Banjul. ECOWAS declared it would intervene militarily. In the end, Jammeh went into exile in response to the ECOWAS stance, and power transitioned without armed clashes.

President Sall pursued a pro-French line. After taking office, the first non-African country he visited was France. He sought to strengthen ties with France, including securing substantial financial support. In the African Union Commission chair election, he also supported a Francophone candidate from Gabon, underscoring Senegal’s Francophone identity.

Blaise Diagne International Airport in Dakar (Photo: World Bank Photo Collection / Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 DEED] )

Rise of the opposition and President Sall’s term-limit issue

Although President Sall became better known internationally, domestic evaluations were not necessarily positive. High unemployment is a problem in Senegal. In 2023, the unemployment rate was about 20%. While Sall pursued pro-French foreign policies, France’s economic influence in Senegal was seen as large, with many believing that much of the profits from economic activity flowed to France instead. In 2021, frustrations arising from chronic poverty were directed at France; demonstrations took place in Dakar, and French-owned supermarkets and gas stations were looted and set on fire. Amid this growing discontent, a new political force emerged.

It was Ousmane Sonko, a former tax inspector and founder of the opposition African Patriots of Senegal for Work, Ethics, and Fraternity (PASTEF). Sonko garnered support through his criticism of France and his charisma. While a tax inspector, he also exposed alleged tax evasion. He even addressed the CFA franc, a taboo subject in politics. As his popularity grew, however, in 2021 in February he was accused of sexual assault and was arrested the following month. On his way to that trial, he was also charged with disturbing public order and participating in an unauthorized demonstration—termed “corrupting the youth.” The aforementioned demonstrations were seen as protests against his arrest, and Sonko and his supporters claimed it was a conspiracy by President Sall to sideline a leading opponent. Indeed, President Sall had previously eliminated rivals Khalifa Sall and Karim Wade through scandals. Five people were killed and 590 were injured in these protests.

On 2023/6/1, verdicts were handed down on Sonko’s sexual assault and “corrupting the youth” charges. He was acquitted of sexual assault, but received a guilty verdict on “corrupting the youth.” This conviction resulted in a two-year prison sentence, and Sonko was removed from the list of election candidates. His conviction triggered a string of protests by Senegalese who supported Sonko and the opposition. At least 16 people died in these demonstrations. To prevent riots, the government announced on 6/4 of the same year that it would restrict access to social media services such as WhatsApp and Facebook to curb the spread of “fake news” online.

In addition to Sonko’s rise, a term-limit issue was also a factor behind the unrest. President Sall’s term was due to end on 2024/4/2. The Senegalese constitution limits presidents to 2 terms, so as he was in his second term, Sall could not run again. However, Sall amended the constitution in 2016, and as with Wade’s claim in the 2012 election, Sall’s supporters came to interpret prior terms as not counting, meaning it would be possible for him to run for what would effectively be a third term. Initially, President Sall did not state clearly whether he would run.

President Macky Sall (Photo: European Parliament / Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 DEED])

2024 presidential election

As protests mounted in 2023/6 over Sonko’s arrest and the ambiguity around whether Sall would run again, Sall finally announced in 7 that he would not seek a third term. This announcement eased tensions. A new turn, however, came on 2024/2/3, when President Sall declared the presidential election postponed. The vote had originally been scheduled for 2024/2/25, but he announced it would be postponed to 12/25 of the same year. Working with other parties, Sall’s party forced a vote in parliament to delay the election. As justification, they cited conflicts between the Constitutional Council and the legislature and allegations of corruption among council members, but many saw it as an attempt to avoid the disadvantage faced by Amadou Ba, the ruling party’s successor candidate.

The opposition strongly objected to Sall’s actions and demanded that the election be held by 4/2, when his term expired. Protests broke out across the country calling for the election to be held and for Sonko’s release. To prevent large-scale demonstrations, access to the internet was also restricted. ECOWAS demanded on 2/13 that the government revert to the original schedule and dispatched a delegation to Dakar. The Constitutional Court also ruled the postponement unconstitutional, and the Constitutional Council invalidated the bill to postpone the election to 12. Setting a date proved difficult, but on 2024/3/7 President Sall announced the election would be held on 3/24. Sonko was released under a presidential pardon 10 days before voting day.

Although convicted in June and removed from the list of candidates, a judge ordered Sonko’s re-registration in 12. However, in 1 the Supreme Court found him guilty of defamation, and the Constitutional Council ruled he could not run. With Sonko’s backing, Bassirou Diomaye Faye, a former tax inspector who had worked with Sonko in PASTEF, ran for president. Like Sonko, Faye was arrested in 2023/7 on charges of “corrupting the youth,” and was released on bail under a presidential pardon 10 days before the vote. The ruling camp fielded Amadou Ba.

Diomaye Faye (Photo: SENEGO TV / Wikimedia Commons [CC BY 3.0 LEGAL CODE])

As a result, on 3/27, Faye won with a vote share of 54%. Ba and other opposition candidates conceded defeat, and President Sall also congratulated Faye on his victory.

At 44, Faye is the youngest president in Senegal’s history and currently the youngest among African presidents. He has pledged to root out corruption and stabilize the economy by properly managing natural resources. He also supports abolishing the CFA franc. Backed by Sonko’s support, he won significant backing—especially among Senegal’s youth—who are critical of France for enriching itself at Senegal’s expense, a factor noted in analyses of his victory.　

Conclusion

Since independence, Senegal—unlike many other West African countries—has seen changes of government through elections, and has never experienced a military coup, so it is considered a country where democracy is relatively entrenched. However, turmoil has accompanied each of the two presidential transitions. In the unrest from 2023 to 2024, strong domestic and international backlash, along with a functioning judiciary, prevented the president from postponing the election as intended. Despite the turmoil, power changed hands without a coup. In a West Africa that has seen repeated coups since 2020, could this mark a turning point for democracy?

Going forward, all eyes will be on what policies President Faye adopts to tackle corruption, unemployment, the Casamance issue, and relations with France. And in future presidential elections that may bring changes of government, we hope democracy will be upheld.

Note 1: Atlantic triangular trade : A form of trade conducted from the 15th to the 19th centuries. It linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Enslaved Africans were supplied as labor for the Americas. People were seized by Europeans or traded as prisoners captured in conflicts fueled by weapons exported from Europe, and enslaved people were held in appalling conditions.

Writer: Misaki Nakayama

Graphics: Ayaka Takeuchi

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