In 1938, the phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by scholars. Since then, nuclear power has been put to practical use. One way to use nuclear energy is nuclear power generation, which produces enormous amounts of energy. On the other hand, it can cause tremendous damage, such as leaving radioactive waste and accidents at nuclear power plants like those at Chernobyl and Fukushima. It is also used in nuclear weapons. During World War II, atomic bombs were dropped, causing great devastation.

Uranium, a mineral resource, is used as a raw material for such nuclear power. One of the countries with large uranium deposits is Niger, located in West Africa. Uranium mining is a major industry in Niger. However, it is French companies, not Nigerien companies, that mine uranium in Niger. What circumstances and challenges lie behind this? This article looks at uranium mining in Niger.

The main street of Arlit, a city in northern Niger (Photo: NigerTZai / Wikimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 4.0])

About Niger

Niger has a land area of 1,267,000 square kilometers and a population of 25.13 million residing there. Most of the northern part is covered by the Sahara Desert, and the south lies in the Sahel, a semi-arid region.

Here is a brief overview of Niger’s history. West Africa, where Niger is located today, was a center of trade known as Sahel trade (Note 1) from around the 7th to 8th centuries. In this region, numerous empires such as the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire repeatedly rose and fell. In 1890, France invaded and occupied the area where Niger is now located. The area became a French colony and the current borders were drawn. Niger became an autonomous republic within the French Community in 1958 and gained independence in 1960. Even after independence, the political system was unstable at times, with coups occurring three times in 1974, 1996, and 2010.

Next, let’s look at present-day Niger. According to the World Bank, as of 2021, 95.8% of the population were living in poverty on US$7.5 per day or less (Note 2), and hunger and drought occur frequently. Access to healthcare, education, and infrastructure is also in a difficult situation.

The main industry is mining, with uranium extraction being particularly important. Niger’s uranium resources account for nearly 5% of the world’s total, ranking 7th in the world. Its uranium production is also close to 5% of the global total, ranking 6th. Several uranium mines are located around the city of Arlit in the north, where extraction takes place. Although uranium accounts for about 70% of Niger’s exports, it makes up only about 5% of the gross domestic product (GDP). One of the main reasons is that much of the profits from exporting uranium mined in Niger do not remain in Niger but flow to France. The following sections describe the relationship between Niger and France in uranium mining.

Signboard at the main entrance of the Higher Institute of Mining, Industry, and Geology in Niger (Photo: Yann Fauché and Alma Mulalic / Wikimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 3.0])

The relationship between Niger and France over uranium

As noted above, Niger was formerly a French colony. France colonized much of West Africa, including Niger, forming French West Africa. At the time, France had a law that allowed it to impose forced labor on Africans for up to two years. During the colonial era, France exploited both resources and labor in West Africa.

Although Niger gained independence in 1960, French influence did not disappear and remains strong to this day. One example is the introduction during the colonial period of the CFA (African Financial Community Communauté Financière Africaine) franc as a currency among West African countries, which is still used today. The CFA franc’s exchange rate is pegged to the euro used in France, and Niger is under an obligation to deposit part of its central bank reserves in France. Under this system, the Nigerien government is compelled to maintain financial ties with France. In this way, France exerts economic influence over West African countries, including Niger.

Uranium was first discovered in Niger in 1957, before independence, and in 1961, after independence, France and Niger concluded a bilateral defense agreement under which France gained priority access to Niger’s uranium.

Why did France seek to intervene in uranium mining in Niger? In the 1950s, France drew up a plan centered on nuclear power generation, which required massive quantities of uranium to implement. There was no guarantee that domestic supplies alone could meet the needed volume, and there were problems with the high cost of procuring uranium from French soil. Therefore, in Niger—an erstwhile colony with abundant uranium and lower extraction costs—France moved to secure supplies. In 1973, boosted by the impact of the oil shock (Note 3), demand for nuclear power rose, further advancing the plan.

The Tricastin nuclear complex in France (Photo: Franck GAVARD PERRET / Wikimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 3.0])

In addition to power generation, it is thought that there was also the goal of use for nuclear weapons. France conducted its first nuclear test in 1960. As of 2022, France’s estimated number of nuclear warheads was 290.

In 1976, the French government established COGEMA, a state-owned corporate group engaged in nuclear fuel-related operations. COGEMA subsequently merged twice with other state-owned enterprises, leading to the establishment of Areva in 2001. Although Areva was a private company, the French state held most of its capital. Subsidiaries of Areva, discussed below, led efforts to promote uranium mining in Niger. In 2018, its nuclear-related subsidiaries were renamed Orano.

Areva’s moves

Here we describe the main companies actually engaged in uranium mining in Niger. SOMAÏR and COMINAK are companies that mine uranium at mines around the city of Arlit in Niger. SOMAÏR used open-pit methods, and COMINAK used underground mining methods. The French company Areva (now Orano) mentioned earlier owned a majority of the shares in both SOMAÏR and COMINAK, making them subsidiaries, and effectively operated them. Revenue from these two mines accounted for about one-third of Areva’s output as of 2017, which was in the billions of US dollars. However, due to the collapse in uranium prices following the Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan in 2011, operations became unprofitable, and due to resource depletion, COMINAK’s underground mine was closed on May 31, 2021.

Despite the enormous revenues from uranium mining, as noted above, the majority of the profits are not returned to Niger. This is thought to be due to the unequal terms of the uranium mining agreements between the French company Areva and Niger. Let us explain the contents of these unequal deals. Although details are not public, the royalty rate (Note 4) up to 2014 is said to have been around 5.5%. In other words, of the profits that Areva earned from uranium mining, the Nigerien government received about 5.5%, and Areva about 94.5%. In addition, SOMAÏR and COMINAK, Areva’s subsidiaries, were granted major tax incentives, keeping their tax payments to the Nigerien government low. There have also been allegations of corruption, with uranium allegedly flowing to Areva at unjustifiably low prices.

As a result of such deals, in 2020 Niger’s mining revenues, including uranium, amounted to about US$50 million (Note 5), while the total value of uranium exports was five times that, at US$250 million. In other words, even after profit allocation was reset, the majority of profits still flow overseas.

Health impacts in Niger

The issues with the French company Areva’s uranium mining are not limited to profit distribution. It has also caused significant health damage in Niger. Uranium is radioactive. Therefore, uranium mining carries the risk that workers performing the mining are exposed to radiation, and that people living nearby are exposed due to contamination caused by mined ores and waste. Here we explain the health impacts on uranium mine workers and on people living nearby.

First, the health impacts on uranium mine workers. When working in uranium mines, it is necessary to prevent hazards caused by radiation. However, at SOMAÏR’s mines, former workers say they were not provided items such as masks to protect the nose and mouth during work and had to work under harsh conditions. At COMINAK’s underground mine, it is said that more than 1,000 workers were performing mining operations at a depth of 250m underground. In underground mines, where gas tends to accumulate, working without adequate safety measures is dangerous. Cases of illnesses suspected to be related to radiation among workers engaged in uranium mining have been reported. However, doctors at SOMAÏR’s hospital, funded by Areva, have reportedly claimed that the illnesses observed in former miners had nothing to do with mining activities or radiation.

Next, the health impacts on people living around uranium mines. The director of CRIIRAD (the French independent research and information commission on radioactivity) measured the radioactivity of drinking water used in Arlit and surrounding areas for over 10 years. A study from 2003 to 2004 showed that the measured concentrations of uranium in drinking water were 10 to 100 times higher than the World Health Organization’s recommended safety guideline levels. In response, Areva stated that the results were due to natural contamination processes. It has also been reported that the mortality rate from respiratory-related diseases in the mining region is twice that of other regions in Niger. The incidence of illnesses such as congenital defects and cancers, which are often caused by radiation exposure, is also said to be increasing. It is hard to believe that these health impacts are unrelated to uranium mining. On the other hand, objective data are insufficient, so the relationship is not conclusively established.

In addition, radon, a radioactive gas generated from waste produced by uranium mining, becomes radioactive dust carried by the desert’s strong winds and is dispersed. This contaminates the air and soil, and inhalation by nearby residents leads to health damage.

France’s aims

Let us examine the stance of France, the home country of Areva (now Orano), which has treated Niger unfairly in uranium mining.

First, the relationship between the French government and uranium mining in Niger. The French government has a national interest in securing energy resources. About 70% of France’s total power generation comes from nuclear power, which uses large amounts of uranium. In fact, as of 2014, Niger’s uranium supplied as much as 50% of France’s electricity. Thus, uranium extraction is not merely a matter for French companies; it also concerns the national interest of securing energy resources. It is also conceivable that the French government benefits from the prosperity of its own companies.

To protect these interests, the French government has engaged in military interventions. One example is France’s military intervention in the conflict in Mali since 2012. Mali is a neighboring country of Niger, and the conflict spread to Niger as well. Opinions differ on how much the protection of uranium mining in Niger factored into the background of the military intervention in Mali, but there are analyses hinting at that possibility. After intervening in Mali, in 2013 the French government ordered its special forces to defend the uranium mines operated by Areva. This is believed to have been prompted by an incident in 2010 in which seven workers were abducted by Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) in Arlit, where uranium is mined, amid the spreading conflict in Mali.

French soldiers overlooking a military fort in Niger (Photo: Thomas GOISQUE / Wikimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 3.0])

Furthermore, after French forces withdrew from Mali in 2022, Niger accepted 1,500 French troops, and France has used drones and fighter jets in Niger, strengthening military cooperation between the two countries.

Resistance to Areva

Niger has not remained passive in the face of Areva’s unfair treatment. Here are some examples of Niger’s resistance.

In 2014, the unequal terms between Areva and the Nigerien government were renegotiated. During the negotiations, Areva appears to have exerted pressure on the Nigerien government, such as by temporarily suspending mine operations. The renegotiation was far from straightforward, but according to reports, in the end Areva agreed to forgo many tax breaks and to raise the royalty rate to as high as 12% depending on profitability terms.

There have also been cases in which Nigeriens took action against their own government over uranium mining. One example is the activities of Ali Idrissa, a Nigerien human rights defender. Ali has energetically conducted a campaign to ensure that the benefits of natural resources such as uranium extracted in Niger accrue to the Nigerien people, publicly criticizing the unfair agreements between Areva and the Nigerien government.

Another example is the actions of the Movement for Justice in Niger (MNJ), an armed group composed mainly of Tuareg pastoralists. The MNJ was formed in northern Niger, where uranium is mined. Since the MNJ uses armed force, the Nigerien government has rejected its demands. However, among its demands are calls for the Nigerien government to return the benefits of uranium mining to the north, where it is produced, and to eliminate pollution from waste. While its true objectives are unclear, it can be seen as taking action regarding uranium mining vis-à-vis the Nigerien government.

Residents of southern Mali and French soldiers (Photo: TM1972 / Wikimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 4.0])

It is not only people in Niger who seek improvements in the current relationship between Areva and Niger. There are also movements in France. One figure is former Member of the European Parliament Michèle Rivasi, who has called for improvements to the problems of uranium mining in Niger. For example, in 2017, Rivasi explained the situation of uranium mining in Niger at the European Commission together with a nuclear engineer and a Nigerien activist. She organized a meeting at the European Parliament and urged the European Commission to conduct a fact-finding mission. In 2020, Rivasi and other members again took action on these issues.

As shown above, there are people both in Niger and in France who view the current state of uranium mining in Niger as a problem, and concrete actions have been taken.

Outlook

This article has taken a broad look at uranium mining in Niger conducted by the French company Areva (now Orano), from matters concerning profit relationships between companies and states and between countries, to those concerning workers and residents. Influences from the colonial era linger, and negotiations have been conducted in ways favorable to the French government and French companies; the issues surrounding uranium mining are numerous.

At the same time, dependence on France, the main destination for Niger’s uranium exports, is easing. Today, Niger exports large amounts of uranium to Japan, Germany, and Spain as well. However, these countries and their companies also hold a stronger bargaining position than Niger, making it unlikely that Niger will be able to trade at fair prices.

Unfair profit distribution for Niger is one cause of poverty, and poverty can lead to political instability. In fact, there was an attempted coup in 2021. To resolve these issues, it is necessary to improve the current state of uranium mining. We will continue to watch the Nigerien government’s moves with interest.

Note 1 Sahel trade refers to commerce connecting the region south of the Sahara Desert with the Mediterranean side. Major flows included gold and slaves from south of the Sahara traded for cloth and metal goods from the Mediterranean side; and salt and livestock from the Sahara traded for grain and cloth from the region south of the Sahara.

Note 2 The World Bank defined the extreme poverty line as US$1.90 per day as of 2021. In contrast, GNV adopts an ethical poverty line (US$7.4 per day) rather than the extreme poverty line. Here, due to data constraints, 7.5 is used instead of 7.4. For details, see GNV’s article “How should we interpret the state of global poverty?”

Note 3 The oil shock refers to the economic turmoil caused when Arab countries, which mainly export crude oil, reduced production or raised prices due to war impacts and diplomatic strategy. There were two oil shocks: the first in 1973 and the second in 1979.

Note 4 The royalty rate is the proportion of profits from a project paid to the rights holder. In the relationship between Areva and the Nigerien government, Areva is the project operator and Niger is the rights holder.

Note 5 Calculated using the exchange rate as of January 1, 2020 tables. Approximately US$50 million was converted to 304.55 billion CFA francs. Approximately US$250 million was converted to 1454.70 billion CFA francs.

Writer: Ryoga Kuniyoshi

Graphics: MIKI Yuna

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