Hezbollah is a Lebanese organization that wields influence in the Middle East rivaling that of states. It was originally a Shia Muslim organization formed to defend Lebanon against incursions by neighboring Israel, but it now holds seats in Lebanon’s parliament and exerts influence on domestic politics. Today, it possesses significant political and military power in parts of Lebanon. Hezbollah also receives foreign military support and intervenes in conflicts abroad, so its influence is not confined within Lebanon. In addition, Hezbollah receives substantial support from the government and organizations of Iran, and, in support of fellow Shia Muslims, has intervened in the conflicts in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen by providing military assistance and even participating directly. As an organization within a state that builds ties with foreign countries and intervenes in foreign conflicts, Hezbollah is often called “a state within a state.” This article explores the reality of Hezbollah.

Hezbollah parade when Israel withdrew from Lebanon (khamenei.ir / Wikimedia Commons [CC BY 4.0])

The birth of Hezbollah

Hezbollah means the “Party of God” in Arabic. Its origins date back to Lebanon’s turbulent period beginning in the 1970s. Lebanon is a country where various ethnicities and religions are intermingled. Many religions, including Islam and Christianity, coexist, and their sects are further subdivided—Islam into Sunni and Shia, and Christianity into Maronite, Catholic, Protestant, and more. These multiple religious forces each engage in domestic politics, and to prevent any one religious group from monopolizing power, political authority is evenly distributed. Specifically, the presidency is allocated to a Maronite Christian, the prime ministership to a Sunni Muslim, and the speakership of parliament to a Shia Muslim to maintain a balance of power. This arrangement stems from the National Pact concluded when Lebanon gained independence from France in 1943.

Created with reference to the map at https://books.openedition.org/ifpo/13214

This religious balance of power gradually broke down. In 1948, the establishment of Israel created many Palestinian refugees. They flowed into Lebanon as well, increasing the country’s Palestinian population size. From the 1970s to the 1980s, conflicts in neighboring countries again sent many Palestinian refugees into Lebanon. The influx of Palestinian refugees increased the proportion of Muslims in the country and upset the domestic religious balance. Political frictions grew alongside other factors, leading to the outbreak of the Lebanese conflict in 1975. In 1971, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which opposes Israel’s occupation of Palestine, relocated its base from Jordan to Lebanon. The move stemmed from deteriorating relations between the PLO and Jordan, and the Lebanese government tolerated the PLO’s presence in the country. When the PLO attacked Israel, Israel began intervening in the Lebanese conflict in 1978 under the pretext of toppling the PLO. Although Israel initially withdrew partially, it invaded Lebanon again in 1982 and occupied the southern regions. To retake the occupied areas, Shia Muslim forces rallied, and in 1982 they formed Hezbollah.

Although Hezbollah coalesced around a Shia identity, it was still just one of many religious communities in Lebanon. Consequently, there was a significant military imbalance between Israel—long a recipient of robust U.S. military support—and Hezbollah. Even so, Hezbollah was able to confront Israel over southern Lebanon thanks to support from Iran, whose new regime emerged from the 1979 revolution, and from the Syrian regime, which shares a Shia-derived identity (※1). From Iran, Hezbollah received not only ample financial aid but also military assistance, including training by Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (※2). Since the 1980s, it has also had a strong alliance with Syria. With support from both, Hezbollah repeatedly clashed with Israel to retake southern Lebanon, ultimately forcing Israel to withdraw from Lebanon in 2000.

Cityscape devastated by the Lebanese conflict (Luc Chessex / Wikimedia [CC BY-SA 4.0])

Influence within Lebanon

Having traced Hezbollah’s origins, let’s look at how it developed. Hezbollah was established in 1982 by Abbas al-Musawi. It then formed a structured organization centered on a supreme leader. In 1986, it created a Shura Council that operates under the leader’s direction, and beneath it various specialized bodies such as a political council and an executive council emerged. Since 1992, Hassan Nasrallah has served as the supreme leader, guiding Hezbollah to the present day.

While establishing its organizational structure, Hezbollah broadened its activities into politics as a party from 1992. In the 1992 elections, Hezbollah won its first seats and entered national politics. A key turning point in its political rise was the renewed Lebanese conflict in 2006. Even after Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000, tensions persisted, and Hezbollah and Israel faced off along the border. In 2006, another armed clash erupted between Israel and Hezbollah, and Israel again invaded Lebanon. Hezbollah’s resistance led to a stalemate, and about a month later the war ended with Israel withdrawing. Even after these conflicts ended, Hezbollah has maintained its own military organization within Lebanon. Many citizens judged that, on two occasions, Hezbollah protected Lebanon from Israeli incursions, which expanded its domestic support.

A poster depicting Hezbollah’s past and present leaders (Will De Freitas / Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

Using this second Lebanese conflict as a springboard, Hezbollah expanded its political power. Hezbollah was part of the March 8 (※3) alliance, one of Lebanon’s major political forces. Formed on March 8, 2005, it is a pro-Syrian coalition led by Hezbollah. As a member of this March 8 coalition, Hezbollah increased its seats in the 2009 elections. Furthermore, in 2011, members of the March 8 coalition, including Hezbollah, secured 18 of the country’s 30 cabinet posts, solidifying Hezbollah’s political power.

Hezbollah also provides support not only militarily but by delivering public services in southern Lebanon facing Israel and in western areas bordering Syria. For example, it has actively worked on infrastructure improvements and enhancements to healthcare and education. Perhaps as a result, Hezbollah has garnered a measure of support not only among its traditional Shia base but also among people from other sects and affiliations. According to a 2014 survey, 31% of the country’s Christians and 9% of Sunni Muslims held a favorable view of Hezbollah. In this way, Hezbollah conducts a wide range of independent activities spanning not only military affairs but also politics and governance.

Interventions abroad

Hezbollah’s activities are not confined within Lebanon. In the 1980s and ’90s, it was said to have been involved in terrorism at home and abroad; in addition, it has intervened as a military organization. With Iran’s cooperation, it has transcended national boundaries and intervened in various armed conflicts around the region. Here we look at three conflicts Hezbollah has entered—the Iraq War, the Syrian conflict, and the Yemen war—and examine its actions in each.

First, Hezbollah’s involvement in the Iraq War. The Iraq War was a conflict launched by former U.S. President George W. Bush starting in 2003, during which the country was occupied by U.S. forces for a time. As part of resistance to this occupation, Hezbollah supported Iraqi Shia groups by sending trainers and providing funds and weapons. Hezbollah’s support for Iraq stemmed from the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, which cooperates with Hezbollah, also providing assistance there. Support to Iraq by Hezbollah and the IRGC continued even after the U.S. withdrew from Iraq.

Cityscape devastated by the Syrian conflict (Russian Ministry of Defense / Wikimedia commons [CC BY 4.0])

Next, Hezbollah’s role in the Syrian conflict. The Syrian conflict is a war between President Bashar al-Assad’s regime and opposition forces that erupted amid the 2011 wave of revolutions known as the “Arab Spring.” Countries such as Russia, the United States, Turkey, and Israel, as well as extremist groups like IS (the Islamic State), joined in, thereby exerting major influence on Middle Eastern geopolitics. Hezbollah has long had a cooperative relationship with the Assad regime in Syria, and starting in 2013 it not only offered indirect support but also deployed its own forces to back Assad. With modern weapons and sophisticated operations supported by Iran’s logistical backing, it fought opposition forces and grew into a threat even to Israeli and U.S. militaries. In the Syrian conflict, Hezbollah also reportedly fought IS from 2014 onward on the side of the Assad regime, engaging in combat. Hezbollah’s deep commitment to the Assad side likely stems from the support it has long received from the regime. If the Assad regime’s foundations were shaken, Hezbollah itself could be significantly affected and its own survival as an organization threatened—factors that help explain its level of involvement in the Syrian conflict.

Lastly, the Yemen conflict. The war in Yemen is a fight that began in 2014 between Yemen’s government forces and the Houthi movement. In Yemen, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, supported by the United States, joined on the side of the government with large-scale forces intervening. The Houthis are said to receive support from Iran, making this a conflict entangling numerous domestic and foreign actors. In this conflict, Hezbollah, alongside Iran, is said to have trained Houthi forces and otherwise intervened. However, these reports are not definitive. Saudi Arabia, which backed the government side, claimed that the Houthi leader and Hezbollah’s top leader had met secretly, but Hezbollah denied this.

Viewed as a whole, many of the conflicts in which Hezbollah has engaged appear to have been driven by objectives such as checking the expansion of countries like Israel, the United States, and Saudi Arabia, and maintaining Shia influence across the Middle East. In that sense, Hezbollah has had a significant impact on the regional situation.

Hezbollah’s relations with neighboring countries and organizations

As we have seen, Hezbollah has been involved in many conflicts around Lebanon. Let’s also examine its relationships with neighboring countries and organizations.

Created with reference to the map at https://www.afpbb.com/articles/-/3072317

First, Hezbollah’s ties with Syria and Iran. As evidenced by its participation on the Assad regime’s side in the Syrian conflict, Hezbollah and Syria’s Assad regime are in a cooperative relationship. Behind this are factors such as both Hezbollah and Syria being hostile to Israel and the regime’s roots in a Shia-derived sect. Iran and Hezbollah likewise oppose Israel, and since Israel’s invasion of Lebanon in 1978 and Hezbollah’s founding, they have maintained a close relationship. As noted, the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps has provided repeated military and personnel support to Hezbollah in numerous conflicts, which has been a crucial pillar enabling Hezbollah’s cross-border operations.

Next, Hezbollah’s relationship with Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia and Iran have long been in a state of rivalry. Given Hezbollah’s strong backing from Iran, it is inevitably at odds with Saudi Arabia. In 2016, after the Gulf Cooperation Council, a regional body of Gulf states, designated Hezbollah a terrorist organization, Saudi Arabia together with the Arab League also designated Hezbollah a terrorist organization that same year. By enlisting surrounding Gulf states to impose stringent economic sanctions, they have pressured Lebanon. In 2017, Saudi Arabia also kidnapped Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Hariri and forced his resignation—an interference in Lebanon’s internal affairs. Hariri had reportedly remarked to Lebanese officials on the importance of Hezbollah’s presence, which some say may have been a factor behind the abduction.

Syria’s current president Bashar al-Assad (left), his father former president Hafez al-Assad (center), and Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah (right) (Melissa Wall / Flickr [CC BY-NC 2.0])

Finally, a look at Hezbollah’s relationship with Hamas (※4). Hamas is an organization formed in Palestine in 1987 to oppose Israel and currently governs the Gaza Strip. As forces opposing Israel, Hezbollah and Hamas have built a close relationship. However, although they share a common adversary, they do not share the same ideology. While Hezbollah maintains close ties with Syria’s Assad regime, Hamas declared in 2012 that it would not support the Assad regime, causing strains in their relationship.

Lebanon’s crisis

Lebanon has in recent years fallen into a critical situation on both political corruption and fiscal fronts. Politically, Lebanon is counted among the countries with the most severe corruption problems in the world. Corruption is rampant at various levels, with persistent patronage by politicians and bureaucrats and the misuse of public funds. In the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), which measures perceived corruption worldwide, Lebanon ranked 154th out of 180 countries in 2021, indicating the severity. One reason cited is Lebanon’s decentralized political system. Because politicians and bureaucrats rely on religious/sectarian communities as their support base, collusion and corruption aimed at strengthening ties become more likely. A lack of effective checks and balances among branches of power such as the judiciary and the administration also contributes.

Lebanon’s public finances are also in crisis. Debts accumulated since the Lebanese conflict have strained the budget, and by 2021 government debt had reached 495% of Lebanon’s GDP. Foreign currency shortages and inflation are severe; banks have been closed, and many citizens are in poverty. Causes include not only debts from the Lebanese conflict but also the cessation of remittances from migrant workers abroad during the 2011 “Arab Spring,” along with the withdrawal of aid to Lebanon by Gulf states and the imposition of economic sanctions. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and the massive explosion in Beirut further compounded the crisis.

People in Beirut, the capital of Lebanon (Freimut Bahlo / Wikimedia commons [CC BY-SA 4.0])

How have these dual political and economic crises affected Hezbollah? Although Hezbollah declared that it would tackle corruption when it took part in governing, it has failed to implement effective measures. On the contrary, Hezbollah itself is alleged to be a party to corruption and faces public criticism. For example, criminal organizations involved in political corruption were found to have provided financial support to Hezbollah, and a former Lebanese health minister who was a Hezbollah official was revealed to have been involved in corruption.

The fiscal crisis is also not unrelated to Hezbollah. One factor in the economic crisis—the halt of support and the imposition of sanctions by Gulf states—stems from Hezbollah’s support from Iran. While Hezbollah touts its results in implementing measures against COVID-19, public perceptions may not fully align. After the explosion in Beirut, large-scale demonstrations broke out among citizens suffering from poverty and unemployment. With poverty unrelieved, Hezbollah is losing trust even among Shia Muslims, its core support base.

Externally, tensions with Israel are again rising. In August 2021, for the first time in 15 years since the 2006 conflict, rockets were fired from Lebanon at Israel. Israel carried out retaliatory strikes on Lebanon, raising concerns of a renewed full-scale confrontation.

Conclusion

As noted at the outset, Hezbollah is called a “state within a state.” Once an anti-Israel resistance organization in Lebanon, Hezbollah now governs parts of Lebanon, maintains close cooperative relationships with foreign countries, and intervenes militarily abroad with foreign support—a highly transnational organization. To understand the complexities of Middle Eastern affairs, it is essential to focus on Hezbollah as a key actor.

※1 The Assad regime in Syria is Alawite, a branch of Shia Islam.

※2 The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps is an Iranian military organization led by Ayatollah Khomeini.

※3  The March 8 Alliance is a pro-Syrian political coalition in Lebanon. The name comes from its formation on March 8, 2005, and there is also a rival coalition known as the March 14 Alliance. Major constituent parties include Hezbollah, Amal, and the Free Patriotic Movement (FPM).

※4 Hamas is an Islamist armed organization that effectively governs the Gaza Strip in Palestine.

Writer: Takumi Kuriyama

Graphics: Takumi Kuriyama

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